State v. Gardner

                )LOHGE\&OHUNRI6XSUHPH&RXUW
                          ,17+(6835(0(&2857
                      67$7(2)1257+'$.27$


                                   1'


6WDWHRI1RUWK'DNRWD                                       3ODLQWLIIDQG$SSHOOHH

       Y

6WHYHQ*DUGQHU                                           'HIHQGDQWDQG$SSHOODQW


                                   1R


      $SSHDOIURPWKH'LVWULFW&RXUWRI&DVV&RXQW\(DVW&HQWUDO-XGLFLDO'LVWULFW
WKH+RQRUDEOH:DGH/:HEE-XGJH

       5(9(56('$1'5(0$1'('

       2SLQLRQRIWKH&RXUWE\7XIWH-XVWLFH

       0DUN5%RHQLQJ$VVLVWDQW6WDWH¶V$WWRUQH\)DUJR1'IRUSODLQWLIIDQG
DSSHOOHH

      /XNH 7 +HFN DUJXHG  DQG 'UHZ - +XVKND RQ EULHI  )DUJR 1' IRU
GHIHQGDQWDQGDSSHOODQW
                                    6WDWHY*DUGQHU
                                      1R


       7XIWH-XVWLFH
>ˆ@   6WHYHQ *DUGQHU DSSHDOV IURP DQ RUGHU GHIHUULQJ LPSRVLWLRQ RI VHQWHQFH
IROORZLQJKLVFRQGLWLRQDOJXLOW\SOHDWRFRQVSLUDF\WRSRVVHVVPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHZLWK
LQWHQWWRGHOLYHUDVZHOODVIURPDQRUGHUGHQ\LQJKLVPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVHYLGHQFH
IRXQG LQ D SDFNDJH WKDW ZDV QHLWKHU DGGUHVVHG WR KLP QRU VHQW WR KLV UHVLGHQFH
*DUGQHUDUJXHVKHZDVWKHRZQHURIDSDFNDJHXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\VHL]HGE\SROLFH
RIILFHUV DQG KLV ULJKWV ZHUH YLRODWHG E\ WKH VHL]XUH DQG VXEVHTXHQW VHDUFK RI WKH
SDFNDJH7KH6WDWHDUJXHV*DUGQHUGLGQRWHVWDEOLVKDSHUVRQDOSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVW
LQWKHSURSHUW\VXIILFLHQWWRVXSSRUWDFODLPWKDWKLVULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHG:HUHYHUVH
WKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VRUGHUGHQ\LQJ*DUGQHU¶VPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVDQGUHPDQGWRDOORZ
*DUGQHUWRZLWKGUDZKLVJXLOW\SOHD
                                              ,
>ˆ@   8QLWHG3DUFHO6HUYLFH ³836´ QRWLILHGODZHQIRUFHPHQWDERXWDVXVSLFLRXV
SDFNDJHLQLWVSRVVHVVLRQDGGUHVVHGWRD³3DXOLH0FFDII´DWDUHVLGHQFHRQWK6WUHHW
1RUWKLQ)DUJR$)DUJRSROLFHRIILFHUDVNHG836WRVHWWKHSDFNDJHDVLGHVRDFDQLQH
VHDUFKRIWKHSDFNDJHFRXOGEHSHUIRUPHG836VHWWKHSDFNDJHDVLGHZKHQLWDUULYHG
LQ)DUJREXWZRXOGQRWSHUPLW)DUJR3ROLFH'HSDUWPHQWFDQLQHVRQ836SURSHUW\
836WROGWKHRIILFHUKHFRXOGWHPSRUDULO\WDNHWKHSDFNDJHHOVHZKHUHWRFRQGXFW
D FDQLQH VHDUFK 7KH RIILFHU WRRN WKH SDFNDJH WR WKH &LW\ RI )DUJR 3XEOLF 6DIHW\
%XLOGLQJZKHUHDVHFRQGRIILFHUFRQGXFWHGDFDQLQHIUHHDLUVQLII7KHGRJDOHUWHGRQ
WKHSDFNDJH$IWHUREWDLQLQJDVHDUFKZDUUDQWIRUWKHSDFNDJHWKHRIILFHUVVHDUFKHG
LWDQGIRXQGPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHLQVLGH2IILFHUVOHDUQHGWKDW3DXO0HWFDOIOLYHGLQ
DSDUWPHQWIRXUDWWKHDGGUHVVOLVWHGRQWKHSDFNDJH$QRIILFHULGHQWLILHGDYHKLFOH
UHJLVWHUHGWR3DXO0HWFDOILQWKHDSDUWPHQWSDUNLQJORWDQGDWWHPSWHGGHOLYHU\RIWKH
SDFNDJH DW WKH DSDUWPHQW 0HWFDOI DQVZHUHG WKH GRRU VKRZHG KLV 1RUWK 'DNRWD
LGHQWLILFDWLRQ DQG DFFHSWHG WKH SDFNDJH 0RPHQWV ODWHU RIILFHUV VHDUFKHG WKH

                                              
DSDUWPHQWDQGGHWDLQHG0HWFDOIZKRZDVDORQHLQWKHDSDUWPHQW0HWFDOIWROGODZ
HQIRUFHPHQWWKDWKLVEURWKHUZRXOGVHQGSDFNDJHVWRWKHDSDUWPHQWLQWHQGLQJWKHP
IRU*DUGQHU0HWFDOIGHVFULEHGKLPVHOIDVD³PLGGOHPDQ´UHJDUGLQJWKHSDFNDJHV
8SRQUHFHLSWRIDSDFNDJH0HWFDOIZDVWRFDOO*DUGQHUZKRZRXOGFRPHDQGSLFN
XSWKHSDFNDJH0HWFDOIWROGSROLFHWKHSDFNDJHZDV*DUGQHU¶VDQG*DUGQHUZRXOG
RUGLQDULO\JLYHKLPVRPHPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHIRUWKHXVHRIKLVDGGUHVV$WWKHRIILFHUV¶
UHTXHVW0HWFDOIFDOOHG*DUGQHUWRFRPHSLFNXSWKHSDFNDJH:KHQ*DUGQHUDUULYHG
0HWFDOIJDYHKLPWKHSDFNDJH*DUGQHUGLGQRWSD\0HWFDOIRURWKHUZLVHH[FKDQJH
DQ\WKLQJIRUWKHSDFNDJH8SRQOHDYLQJWKHDSDUWPHQWEXLOGLQJZLWKWKHSDFNDJH
*DUGQHUZDVDUUHVWHG*DUGQHUILOHGDPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVWKHHYLGHQFHUHVXOWLQJIURP
WKHSDFNDJHVHDUFK
>ˆ@   $IWHUFRQGXFWLQJDKHDULQJWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWIRXQGWKDWWKHSDFNDJHZDVDQ
³HIIHFW´IRUSXUSRVHVRIWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW5HO\LQJRQState v. Ressler1'
ˆ1:GWKHFRXUWGHWHUPLQHGWKDWWKHUHPRYDORIWKHSDFNDJH
IURP836WRFRQGXFWDFDQLQHVHDUFKZDVDQLOOHJDOVHL]XUH,QXOWLPDWHO\GHQ\LQJ
*DUGQHU¶V PRWLRQ WR VXSSUHVV WKH FRXUW FRQFOXGHG *DUGQHU ODFNHG D VXIILFLHQW
SHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRFODLPWKHLOOHJDOVHL]XUHYLRODWHGKLVFRQVWLWXWLRQDO
ULJKWV7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWIRFXVHGH[FOXVLYHO\RQWKHSDFNDJHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGWKH
IDFWWKDW*DUGQHU¶VQDPHDQGDGGUHVVZHUHQRWRQWKHSDFNDJH$GGLQJWKDW*DUGQHU
GLGQRWOLYHDWWKHDGGUHVVZKHUHWKHSDFNDJHZDVGHOLYHUHGWKHFRXUWFRQFOXGHG³,
VHHQRUHDOFRQQHFWLRQVZKDWVRHYHURI0U*DUGQHUWRWKHSDFNDJH´
                                           ,,
>ˆ@   7KHLVVXHRQDSSHDOLVZKHWKHUXQGHUWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWWRWKH8QLWHG
6WDWHV&RQVWLWXWLRQRU$UWLFOH,†RIWKH1RUWK'DNRWD&RQVWLWXWLRQDQLQGLYLGXDO
PD\DVVHUWKLVULJKWDJDLQVWXQUHDVRQDEOHVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVUHODWLQJWRDSDFNDJH
WKDWZDVQHLWKHUDGGUHVVHGWRKLPQRUVHQWWRSURSHUW\ZKHUHKHZDVOLYLQJ,IVXFK
IDFWVGRQRWFDWHJRULFDOO\EDU*DUGQHU¶VFODLPZHWKHQPXVWFRQVLGHUZKHWKHUWKH
WRWDOLW\RIFLUFXPVWDQFHVSUHVHQWHGLQWKHHYLGHQFHEHIRUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWVXSSRUWV



                                           
DILQGLQJWKDW*DUGQHUODFNHGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRDVVHUW
DYLRODWLRQRIKLVSHUVRQDOULJKWV
>ˆ@   :KHQUHYLHZLQJDGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VGHFLVLRQRQDPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVV
       :HZLOOGHIHUWRDGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VILQGLQJVRIIDFWLQWKHGLVSRVLWLRQRI
       DPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVV&RQIOLFWVLQWHVWLPRQ\ZLOOEHUHVROYHGLQIDYRU
       RIDIILUPDQFHDVZHUHFRJQL]HWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWLVLQDVXSHULRUSRVLWLRQ
       WRDVVHVVFUHGLELOLW\RIZLWQHVVHVDQGZHLJKWKHHYLGHQFH*HQHUDOO\D
       GLVWULFW FRXUW¶V GHFLVLRQ WR GHQ\ D PRWLRQ WR VXSSUHVV ZLOO QRW EH
       UHYHUVHGLIWKHUHLVVXIILFLHQWFRPSHWHQWHYLGHQFHFDSDEOHRIVXSSRUWLQJ
       WKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VILQGLQJVDQGLILWVGHFLVLRQLVQRWFRQWUDU\WRWKH
       PDQLIHVWZHLJKWRIWKHHYLGHQFH
State v. Adams1'ˆ1:G$OWKRXJKZHGHIHUWRWKHGLVWULFW
FRXUW¶VUHVROXWLRQRIXQGHUO\LQJIDFWXDOGLVSXWHVWKHXOWLPDWHFRQFOXVLRQRIZKHWKHU
WKHIDFWVVDWLVI\WKHDSSOLFDEOHOHJDOVWDQGDUGLVDTXHVWLRQRIODZIXOO\UHYLHZDEOHRQ
DSSHDOState v. Nickel1'ˆ1:G
>ˆ@   $QLQGLYLGXDOFKDOOHQJLQJDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHKDVWKHLQLWLDOEXUGHQWRVKRZD
FRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\SURWHFWHGSHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLPSOLFDWHGE\WKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHState
v. Zacher1'ˆ1:GState v. Glaesman1:G
Q 1'  ³,QVXSSUHVVLRQFDVHVWKHGHIHQGDQWKDVWKHLQLWLDOEXUGHQRI
HVWDEOLVKLQJDSULPDIDFLHFDVHWKDWWKHHYLGHQFHZDVLOOHJDOO\VHL]HG´ :KHQWKH
6WDWH FRQGXFWV D VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH ZLWKRXW D ZDUUDQW LW EHDUV WKH EXUGHQ RI
RYHUFRPLQJWKHSUHVXPSWLRQWKDWDZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHLVXQUHDVRQDEOH
State v. Pogue  1'  ˆˆ   1:G   :D\QH 5 /D)DYH
Search and Seizure† E S GHG  VWDWLQJ³LIWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHZDV
SXUVXDQWWRDZDUUDQWWKHGHIHQGDQWKDVWKHEXUGHQRISURRIEXWLIWKHSROLFHDFWHG
ZLWKRXWDZDUUDQWWKHEXUGHQRISURRILVRQWKHSURVHFXWLRQ´ . :KHUHWKHLVVXHLV
ZKHWKHUWKHGHIHQGDQW¶VSHUVRQDOULJKWVKDYHEHHQYLRODWHGDVRSSRVHGWRWKHULJKWV
RIDWKLUGSDUW\ZHKDYHVDLGWKHGHIHQGDQWEHDUVWKHEXUGHQWRVKRZDVXIILFLHQW
SHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLQWKHDVVHUWHGYLRODWLRQSee State v. Raywalt1:G
1'  ³2QFHWKH6WDWHUDLVHVODFNRIVWDQGLQJLWLVWKHGHIHQGDQW¶VEXUGHQWR
HVWDEOLVKWKDWKHKDGDOHJLWLPDWHH[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\LQWKHSODFHVHDUFKHG´ 


                                            
>ˆ@   7KH H[FOXVLRQDU\ UXOH LV DQ DWWHPSW WR HIIHFWXDWH WKH VHDUFK DQG VHL]XUH
SURWHFWLRQVRIWKHVWDWHDQGIHGHUDOFRQVWLWXWLRQVState v. Klevgaard1:G
 1'  GHVFULELQJWKHUXOH¶VWZRSXUSRVHV³  WRGHWHUXQODZIXOSROLFH
FRQGXFWDQG  WRSUHVHUYHMXGLFLDOLQWHJULW\E\QRWSHUPLWWLQJHYLGHQFHWDLQWHG
ZLWKLOOHJDOLW\WREHDGPLWWHGLQFRXUW´ $OWKRXJKRULJLQDOO\DSSOLHGE\WKH8QLWHG
6WDWHV 6XSUHPH &RXUW WR H[FOXGH HYLGHQFH REWDLQHG LQ YLRODWLRQ RI WKH )RXUWK
$PHQGPHQWMapp v. Ohio86  WKLV&RXUWKDVDOVRDSSOLHGWKH
H[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHWRYLRODWLRQVRI$UWLFOH,†RIWKH1RUWK'DNRWD&RQVWLWXWLRQState
v. Stockert  1:G   1'   $Q LQGLYLGXDO LV HQWLWOHG WR WKH
SURWHFWLRQRIWKHH[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHRQO\LIthe individual’s own FRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWV
ZHUHYLRODWHG²WKHLQGLYLGXDOPD\QRWFODLPYLRODWLRQRIDWKLUGSDUW\¶VULJKWVState
v. Oien 1', ¶ 1:GState v. Fischer1:G
1'   FLWLQJ Mancusi v. DeForte  86     ³)RXUWK
$PHQGPHQW ULJKWV DUH SHUVRQDO ULJKWV DQG    PD\ EH HQIRUFHG E\ H[FOXVLRQ RI
HYLGHQFH RQO\ DW WKH LQVWDQFH RI RQH ZKRVH RZQ SURWHFWLRQ ZDV LQIULQJHG E\ WKH
VHDUFKDQGVHL]XUH´  abrogatedRQRWKHUJURXQGV Plumhoff v. Rickard86
   ³)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWULJKWVDUHSHUVRQDOULJKWVZKLFKPD\QRW
EHYLFDULRXVO\DVVHUWHG´ 
>ˆ@   ³7KHULJKWRIWKHSHRSOHWREHVHFXUHLQWKHLUSHUVRQVKRXVHVSDSHUVDQG
HIIHFWV DJDLQVW XQUHDVRQDEOH VHDUFKHV DQG VHL]XUHV VKDOO QRW EH YLRODWHG DQG QR
:DUUDQWVVKDOOLVVXHEXWXSRQSUREDEOHFDXVHVXSSRUWHGE\2DWKRUDIILUPDWLRQDQG
SDUWLFXODUO\ GHVFULELQJ WKH SODFH WR EH VHDUFKHG DQG WKH SHUVRQV RU WKLQJV WR EH
VHL]HG´86&RQVWDPHQG,97KHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOWH[WWHOOVXVDYLRODWLRQRFFXUV
ZKHQIRXUWKLQJVDUHWUXH  WKH6WDWHHQJDJHGLQDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH RI   WKH
FODLPDQW¶V   SHUVRQ KRXVH SDSHU RU HIIHFW DQG   WKH VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH
XQUHDVRQDEO\ YLRODWHG WKH FODLPDQW¶V ULJKW WR EH VHFXUH LQ WKH REMHFW VHDUFKHG RU
VHL]HGSee State v. Planz1:G 1' 
>ˆ@   )LUVWZDVWKHUHD³VHDUFK´RUD³VHL]XUH´E\WKH6WDWH"State v. Garrett
1'  ˆ   1:G  ³,W LV D[LRPDWLF WKDW WKH )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW¶V

                                              
SURWHFWLRQIURPXQODZIXOVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHVLVQRWWULJJHUHGXQOHVVWKHUHKDVLQIDFW
EHHQDµVHDUFK¶RUµVHL]XUH¶E\WKH6WDWH´ 2XUFDVHVKDYHFRQVLVWHQWO\FRQVLGHUHGD
³VHDUFK´WRLPSOLFDWHWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOSURWHFWLRQLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKH³UHDVRQDEOH
H[SHFWDWLRQ RI SULYDF\´ WHVW Id. FLWLQJ Katz v. United States  86  
  +DUODQ - FRQFXUULQJ  United States v. Jones HPSKDVL]HG WKDW Katz¶
GHILQLWLRQVXSSOHPHQWHGUDWKHUWKDQUHSODFHGWKHSODLQPHDQLQJRID³VHDUFK´DVDQ
³LQWUXVLRQRIDFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\SURWHFWHGDUHDLQRUGHUWRREWDLQLQIRUPDWLRQ´
86  $³VHL]XUH´RIDSHUVRQRFFXUVZKHQWKHVWDWHPHDQLQJIXOO\
LQWHUIHUHVZLWKWKHSHUVRQ¶VOLEHUW\RUIUHHGRPRIPRYHPHQWState v. Mercier
1'ˆ1:G³$µVHL]XUH¶RISURSHUW\RFFXUVZKHQWKHUHLVVRPH
PHDQLQJIXOLQWHUIHUHQFHZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVLQWKDWSURSHUW\´
State v. Heier1'ˆ1:GRessler1'ˆ
1:G  ³,QLWLDOO\ ZH PXVW GHFLGH ZKHWKHU    PRYHPHQW RI WKH SDFNDJH
FRQVWLWXWHGDVHL]XUHDWDOO´ United States v. Jacobsen86  
>ˆ@ 6HFRQGZDVWKHLWHPVXEMHFWWRVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHRZQHGRUSRVVHVVHGE\WKH
SHUVRQRUSHUVRQVFODLPLQJSURWHFWLRQDWWKHWLPHRIWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH²ZDVLW
³WKHLU´HIIHFW"7KLVLVWKHSRLQWRIFRQWHQWLRQKHUHDVGLVFXVVHGEHORZ
>ˆ@ 7KLUG LVWKHLWHPWKDWZDVDOOHJHGO\VHL]HGRUVHDUFKHGDSHUVRQKRXVHSDSHU
RUHIIHFW"$VHDUFKRUVHL]XUHLPSOLFDWHVWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQLILWLVGLUHFWHGDWVRPHWKLQJ
ZLWKLQRQHRIWKHHQXPHUDWHGFDWHJRULHV³SHUVRQVKRXVHVSDSHUVDQGHIIHFWV´See
Heier1'ˆ1:GLubenow v. N.D. State Highway Comm’r
1:G 1' Oliver v. United States86
  UHMHFWLQJ DUJXPHQW WKDW RSHQ ILHOGV ZHUH ³HIIHFWV´ DQG VWDWLQJ Katz’
³UHDVRQDEOH H[SHFWDWLRQ RI SULYDF\´ VWDQGDUG GLG QRW VHYHU )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW
GRFWULQHIURPWKH$PHQGPHQW¶VODQJXDJH´ 
>ˆ@ )RXUWKZDVWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHDQ³XQUHDVRQDEOH´YLRODWLRQRIWKHFODLPDQW¶V
ULJKWWREHVHFXUHLQWKHLWHPVHDUFKHGRUVHL]HG"7KHWRXFKVWRQHIRUGHWHUPLQLQJ
FRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\ RI D VHDUFK LV UHDVRQDEOHQHVV ZKLFK W\SLFDOO\ UHTXLUHV ODZ
HQIRUFHPHQWWRREWDLQDMXGLFLDOZDUUDQWEHIRUHFRQGXFWLQJDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHState

                                            
v. Helm1'ˆ1:G:DUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVDUH
XQUHDVRQDEOH XQOHVV VXSSRUWHG E\ SUREDEOH FDXVH DQG RQH RI WKH UHFRJQL]HG
H[FHSWLRQV WR WKH ZDUUDQW UHTXLUHPHQW State v. Morales  1'  ˆ  
1:GRessler1'ˆ1:G7KHUHDVRQDEOHQHVVRI
DVHL]XUHGHSHQGVRQDEDODQFLQJRIWKHSXEOLFLQWHUHVWDGYDQFHGE\WKHVHL]XUHDQG
WKHLQGLYLGXDOULJKWWRDOLEHUW\RUSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWIUHHIURPDUELWUDU\JRYHUQPHQW
LQWHUIHUHQFHGHWHUPLQHGE\ZHLJKLQJWKHJUDYLW\RIWKHLQWHUHVWWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFK
WKHVHL]XUHDGYDQFHVWKHLQWHUHVWDQGWKHVHYHULW\RIWKHLQWHUIHUHQFHZLWKWKHSULYDWH
OLEHUW\RUSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWSee Brown v. Texas86  
                                           ,,,
>ˆ@ 2XULQTXLU\KHUHFHQWHUVRQWKHVHFRQGTXHVWLRQZKHWKHUWKHSDFNDJHZDV
*DUGQHU¶VDWWKHUHOHYDQWWLPH²RULQWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOODQJXDJHZKHWKHUVRPHRQH
LQ*DUGQHU¶VFLUFXPVWDQFHVFRXOGVD\LWZDV³WKHLU´HIIHFW
>ˆ@ %XWYHU\EULHIO\ZHFOHDUDZD\WKHXQGHUEUXVKRIZKDWLVQRWLQGLVSXWH7KH
SDUWLHVGRQRWGLVSXWHWKDWWKHSDFNDJHDWLVVXHKHUHLVDQ³HIIHFW´State v. Nickel
1'ˆ1:GRessler1'ˆ1:G
FLWLQJJacobsen86DW 7KHSDUWLHVDOVRDJUHHWKDWXQGHUResslerDVHL]XUH
RFFXUUHGZKHQDQRIILFHUUHPRYHGWKHSDFNDJHIURP836WRFRQGXFWDFDQLQHIUHHDLU
VQLII  1'  ˆˆ     1:G  7KHUH ZDV QR ZDUUDQW
DXWKRUL]LQJ WKH RIILFHU WR UHPRYH WKH SDFNDJH IURP 836 VR WKH VHL]XUH ZDV
SUHVXPSWLYHO\XQUHDVRQDEOHState v. Karna1'ˆ1:G
VWDWLQJ³ZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVDUHSUHVXPSWLYHO\XQUHDVRQDEOH´ ,QD
ZULWWHQVWDWHPHQWGHFOLQLQJWRSURVHFXWH0HWFDOIWKH6WDWH¶V$WWRUQH\DFNQRZOHGJHG
WKDW WKHUH KDG EHHQ DQ XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO VHL]XUH XQGHU Ressler DQG DQ\ HYLGHQFH
UHVXOWLQJIURPWKDWVHL]XUHZRXOGEHVXSSUHVVHGDWWULDO%HFDXVHWKHUHZDVDZDUUDQW
IRUWKHVHDUFKRIWKHSDFNDJHWKHHYLGHQFHUHVXOWLQJIURPWKHVHDUFKLVLPSOLFDWHG
RQO\EHFDXVHWKHOHJDOLW\RIWKHVHDUFKGHSHQGVRQWKHOHJDOLW\RIWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUH
>ˆ@ :HWXUQQRZWRZKHWKHU*DUGQHUKDGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKH
SDFNDJHDWWKHWLPHRIWKHXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOVHL]XUHWRFODLPWKDWVHL]XUHYLRODWHGKLV

                                           
ULJKWV7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWFRQFOXGHGWKDW*DUGQHU³KDGQRUHDVRQDEOHH[SHFWDWLRQRI
SULYDF\LQWKHSDFNDJH´7KLVIRFXVRQSULYDF\LQWHUHVWVLVFHQWUDOLQGHWHUPLQLQJ
ZKHWKHUDsearch LVXQUHDVRQDEOHEXWLWKDVOLWWOHWRGRZLWKZKHWKHUDseizure LV
XQUHDVRQDEOHRUZKHWKHU*DUGQHUKDVVXIILFLHQWSHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWWRFKDOOHQJHWKH
VHL]XUHKHUHZKLFKWKH6WDWHDJUHHGZDVFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\XQUHDVRQDEOH,QFRQWUDVWWR
D VHDUFK ZKLFK LPSOLFDWHV SULYDF\ D VHL]XUH LPSOLFDWHV LQGLYLGXDO OLEHUW\ RI
PRYHPHQWDQGSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVLQSURSHUW\6HHJacobsen86DW
GLVWLQJXLVKLQJSRVVHVVRU\DQGOLEHUW\LQWHUHVWVLPSOLFDWHGE\VHL]XUHVIURPSULYDF\
LQWHUHVWVLPSOLFDWHGE\VHDUFKHV Soldal v. Cook County86   ³RXU
FDVHVXQPLVWDNDEO\KROGWKDWWKH>)RXUWK@$PHQGPHQWSURWHFWVSURSHUW\DVZHOODV
SULYDF\´ United States v. Miller)G '&&LU  ILQGLQJ³D
EDVLFPLVPDWFKEHWZHHQ0LOOHU¶VZKROHVDOHUHOLDQFHRQKLVprivacyLQWHUHVWLQWKH
ER[HVDQGKLVFKDOOHQJHWRWKHseizureRIWKRVHER[HV´ Lavan v. City of Los Angeles
)G WK&LU  GLVWLQJXLVKLQJVHDUFKHVIURPVHL]XUHVDQG
FRQFOXGLQJ³7KHUHDVRQDEOHQHVVRI$SSHOOHHV¶H[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\LVLUUHOHYDQWDV
WR WKH TXHVWLRQ EHIRUH XV ZKHWKHU WKH )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW SURWHFWV $SSHOOHHV¶
XQDEDQGRQHGSURSHUW\IURPXQUHDVRQDEOHVHL]XUHV´ Bonds v. Cox)G
WK&LU  FRQFOXGLQJKRPHRZQHUKDGVWDQGLQJWRFKDOOHQJHVHL]XUHRIKHUUHDO
SURSHUW\ GHVSLWH KDYLQJ QR UHDVRQDEOH H[SHFWDWLRQ RI SULYDF\ LQ WKH KRXVH  :H
FRQFOXGHWKHSURSHUIRFXVLQHYDOXDWLQJDVHL]XUHLVRQWKHFODLPDQW¶VSRVVHVVRU\
LQWHUHVWVLQSURSHUW\
>ˆ@ *DUGQHU¶Vprivacy interests ZHUHQRWLPSOLFDWHGE\WKHVHL]XUHRIWKHSDFNDJH
LQ ZKLFK WKH SDFNDJH ZDV QRW RSHQHG EXW RQO\ UHPRYHG IURP 836 SURSHUW\
*DUGQHU¶V possessory interests ZHUH LPSOLFDWHG E\ WKH VHL]XUH ZKLFK WKH 6WDWH
FRQFHGHVZDVDFRQVWLWXWLRQDOYLRODWLRQ7KHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VIRFXVRQSULYDF\ ZKLOH
SHUKDSVXQGHUVWDQGDEOHLQYLHZRIWKHVRPHWLPHVPXUN\ZD\KatzKDVLQIOXHQFHG
VHDUFK DQG VHL]XUH FDVHV WR WXUQ VROHO\ RQ H[SHFWDWLRQV RI SULYDF\  ZDV D
PLVDSSOLFDWLRQ RI ODZ EHFDXVH *DUGQHU¶V SULYDF\ LQWHUHVWV LQ WKH SDFNDJH DUH
LUUHOHYDQW2QO\KLVSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVDUHUHOHYDQW

                                           
>ˆ@ *DUGQHU EHDUV WKH EXUGHQ WR VKRZ WKH SDFNDJH ZDV KLV²WKDW KH KDG D
VXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRFODLPKLVULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHGSee
Rakas v. Illinois  86   Q   ³7KH SURSRQHQW RI D PRWLRQ WR
VXSSUHVVKDVWKHEXUGHQRIHVWDEOLVKLQJWKDWKLVRZQ)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWULJKWVZHUH
YLRODWHG E\ WKH FKDOOHQJHG VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH´  Adams  1'  ˆ  
1:G 7XIWH-FRQFXUULQJ 7KHUHDUHPDQ\IDFWRUVDFRXUWFDQDQGVKRXOG
FRQVLGHUZKHQGHWHUPLQLQJSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWSeeWilliams1'ˆ
1:G  FRQVLGHULQJ ZKHWKHU WKH FODLPDQW KDV D SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH
ORFDWLRQVHDUFKHGZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOWDNHVSUHFDXWLRQVWRNHHSWKHLWHPSULYDWH
RUZLWKLQKLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOKDVDFFHVVWRWKHWKLQJRUORFDWLRQ
HYHQWKRXJKLWLVORFNHGRUFORVHG Rawlings v. Kentucky86 
FRQVLGHULQJZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOKDVWKHSRZHUWRH[FOXGHZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDO
KDV SUHYLRXVO\ DFFHVVHG RU LV SHUPLWWHG WR DFFHVV WKH DUHD RU WKLQJ ZKHWKHU WKH
LQGLYLGXDOWDNHVSUHFDXWLRQVWRPDLQWDLQSULYDF\ZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOFODLPVRU
GHQLHVSRVVHVVLRQDQGKRZORQJWKHFODLPDQWKDVNQRZQWKHSHUVRQLQSRVVHVVLRQRI
WKH FRQWDLQHU ZLWK WKH FRQWUDEDQG  Adams DW ˆˆ   FRQVLGHULQJ ZKHWKHU WKH
LQGLYLGXDODVVHUWVRZQHUVKLSRYHUWKHLWHPRUWKHFRQWDLQHUZKHWKHUWKHUHLVHYLGHQFH
RISRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOLVSUHVHQWGXULQJWKHVHDUFKDQGGRHVQRW
REMHFWDQGZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHDQ\LGHQWLI\LQJPDUNVRUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRQHLWKHUWKH
FRQWDLQHURUWKHFRQWHQWV :KHWKHUDSHUVRQKDVDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQ
DQ LWHP WR FODLP LW ZDV XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\ VHDUFKHG RU VHL]HG LV UHYLHZHG RQ D
FDVHE\FDVHEDVLVFRQVLGHULQJWKHWRWDOLW\RIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHV-RKQ:HVOH\+DOO
-USearch and Seizure † WKHG ³>1@RVLQJOHIDFWRUGHWHUPLQHVZKHWKHU
DQLQGLYLGXDOOHJLWLPDWHO\PD\FODLP´WKHIUHHGRPIURPDYLRODWLRQRIKLVVHDUFKDQG
VHL]XUHULJKWVId.Adams, DWˆState v. Gatlin1'ˆ1:G
FRQVLGHULQJWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶V³SRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHWKLQJVVHL]HGRUWKHSODFH
VHDUFKHG´DVVKRZQE\H[FOXGLQJRWKHUVWDNLQJSULYDF\SUHFDXWLRQVDQGUHWDLQLQJ
DFFHVVGHVSLWHDORFNRURWKHUDFFHVVUHVWULFWLRQ  see Oliver86DW



                                              
>ˆ@ +HUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWQDUURZHGLWVFRQVLGHUDWLRQRI*DUGQHU¶VSRVVHVVRU\
LQWHUHVW LQ WKH SDFNDJH WR WKH QDPH DQG DGGUHVV RQ WKH SDFNDJH DQG ZKHWKHU KH
RFFXSLHGWKHORFDWLRQWRZKLFKWKHSDFNDJHZDVDGGUHVVHG7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWVWDWHG
         >7@KHSDFNDJHZDVDGGUHVVHGWR0U0HWFDOIQRW0U*DUGQHU+H
         ZDVQRWDGGUHVVHG,WZDVGHOLYHUHGWRDQDGGUHVVRI0U0HWFDOI¶VWKDW
         LWZDVDGGUHVVHGWRQRW0U*DUGQHU¶V+HZDVQ¶WRQWKHSDFNDJH7KDW
         LV QRW ZKHUH KH OLYHG HW FHWHUD 7KH SDFNDJH ZDV QRW DGGUHVVHG WR
         *DUGQHUQRUZDVLWVHQWWRDSODFHZKHUHKHZDVVWD\LQJ,VHHQRUHDO
         FRQQHFWLRQVZKDWVRHYHURI0U*DUGQHUWRWKHSDFNDJH
7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWYLHZHGWKHLVVXHWRRQDUURZO\7KHIDFWWKDWWKHSDFNDJHGRHVQRW
EHDU *DUGQHU¶V QDPH RU DGGUHVV LV UHOHYDQW EXW QRW GHWHUPLQDWLYH ³:KHQ DQ
LQGLYLGXDODVNVVRPHRQHHOVHWRUHFHLYHPDLOIRUKLPKHGRHVQRWE\WKDWIDFWDORQH
VXUUHQGHU´KLVVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKWVUnited States v. Allen)6XSS
'0H 7KHXVHRIDQDOLDVRUILFWLWLRXVQDPHZKHQVHQGLQJDQGUHFHLYLQJ
SDFNDJHVLVQRWFRQFOXVLYHUnited States v. Pitts)G WK&LU
 United States v. Villarreal)G WK&LU United States
v. Richards  )G   WK &LU   7KHUH DUH PDQ\ UHDVRQV VRPH
LQQRFHQW DQG VRPH VXVSLFLRXV WKDW D SHUVRQ PLJKW XVH DQ DOLDV ZKHQ VHQGLQJ RU
UHFHLYLQJ D SDFNDJH Pitts DW  (IIRUWV DW DQRQ\PLW\ DUH QRW HTXLYDOHQW WR
GLVFODLPHUVRIRZQHUVKLSZKHQVHQGLQJRUUHFHLYLQJDSDFNDJHId. DWsee also
AllenDW:D\QH5/D)DYHSearch & Seizure† I  WKHG 6XSS
 
>ˆ@ 6HYHUDOFDVHVIURPRWKHUMXULVGLFWLRQVKDYHUHMHFWHGDFODLPHGVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH
YLRODWLRQE\DSHUVRQZKRZDVQRWWKHVHQGHURUUHFHLYHURIDSDFNDJH7KHVHFDVHV
DUHGLVWLQJXLVKDEOHLQWKDWWKHSHUVRQFODLPLQJDYLRODWLRQIDLOHGHLWKHUWRFODLPRU
VXEVWDQWLDWH RZQHUVKLS RI HLWKHU WKH SDFNDJH RU LWV FRQWHQWVSee United States v.
Pierce)G WK&LU  FRQFOXGLQJQRULJKWWRFODLPVHDUFKDQG
VHL]XUHYLRODWLRQZKHUHSDFNDJHZDVQHLWKHUVHQWE\QRUDGGUHVVHGWRGHIHQGDQWDQG
GHIHQGDQWGHQLHGRZQHUVKLSRIERWKWKHSDFNDJHDQGWKHFRQWHQWV United States v.
Givens  )G   WK &LU   SHU FXULDP  UHMHFWLQJ FODLP ZKHUH
GHIHQGDQWFODLPHGDSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQSDFNDJHDGGUHVVHGWRWKLUGSDUW\ZKLFKFRQWDLQHG

                                               
GUXJVIRUZKLFKKHKDGQRW\HWSDLG Compare United States v. DiMaggio)6XSS
  1'1<   FRQFOXGLQJ QR SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW HVWDEOLVKHG ZKHQ
VXSSRUWHG RQO\ E\ FODLP RI RZQHUVKLS RI WKH FRQWHQWV DQG DOOHJHG FRQWURO RYHU
SDFNDJHVDVDFWXDOVHQGHUDQGUHFLSLHQW with Richards)GDW ILQGLQJ
GHIHQGDQW KDG VXIILFLHQW SHUVRQDO LQWHUHVW LQ SDFNDJH WR UDLVH)RXUWK $PHQGPHQW
FODLPGHVSLWHKLVQDPHQRWDSSHDULQJRQLWDQGKLVGHQLDORIRZQHUVKLS :HKDYH
HPSKDVL]HGFODLPLQJDSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQDFRQWDLQHUDQGLWVFRQWHQWVLVLPSRUWDQW
DOWKRXJKQRWFRQFOXVLYHLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDYDULHW\RIRWKHUFRQVWLWXWLRQDOHIIHFWVSee
Adams1'ˆ1:G UHMHFWLQJGHIHQGDQW¶VFODLPHG)RXUWK
$PHQGPHQW LQWHUHVW LQ D EDFNSDFN ORFDWHG ZLWKLQ VRPHRQH HOVH¶V YHKLFOH ZKHUH
GHIHQGDQWGHQLHGRZQHUVKLSGLGQRWREMHFWWRVHDUFKDQGEDFNSDFNODFNHGLGHQWLI\LQJ
PDUNVVKRZLQJKLVRZQHUVKLS State v. Dunn1'ˆ1:G
DIILUPLQJRUGHUVXSSUHVVLQJVHDUFKRIMDFNHWIRXQGO\LQJRQSULYDWHGULYHZD\ZKHUH
RZQHURIMDFNHWLQLWLDOO\GHQLHGEXWODWHUFODLPHGLWZDVKLV  State v. Huether
1:G 1'  DIILUPLQJRUGHUVXSSUHVVLQJVHDUFKRISDSHUEDJXQGHU
IURQW VHDW GXULQJ WUDIILF VWRS GHVSLWH GHIHQGDQW¶V GHQLDO RI RZQHUVKLS RI D EDJ RU
NQRZOHGJH RI LWV FRQWHQWV  Rawlings  86 DW  KROGLQJ LQVXIILFLHQW
SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW WR REMHFW WR VHDUFK RI SXUVH ZKHUH WKH GHIHQGDQW FODLPHG
RZQHUVKLSRIGUXJVLQWKHSXUVHEXWQRWRIWKHSXUVHLWVHOI United States v. Parada
 )G   WK &LU   HPSKDVL]LQJ IDLOXUH WR UHVSRQG RU FODLP
RZQHUVKLSZKHQTXHVWLRQHGDVZHLJKLQJDJDLQVWDVVHUWLRQRIVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKW 
United States v. Zabalaga)G '&&LU  KROGLQJGHIHQGDQW
PD\QRWDVVHUWYLRODWLRQRIVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKWEHFDXVHGHIHQGDQWVWDWHGZKHQ
DUUHVWHGWKDWKHGLGQRWRZQWKHFDUKDGQRSHUPLVVLRQWRXVHWKHFDUDQGGLGQRW
FODLPDSRVVHVVRU\ULJKWWRWKHFRQWHQWVRIWKHFDUQRUZHUHWKHUHLGHQWLI\LQJPDUNV
RQWKHFRQWHQWV 
>ˆ@ +HUH WKH GLVWULFW FRXUW HUUHG E\ IDLOLQJ WR H[DPLQH WKH WRWDOLW\ RI WKH
FLUFXPVWDQFHVSeeAllen)6XSSDWUnited States v. Sheldon)6XSS
G   ' +DZ   7KH GLVWULFW FRXUW GLG QRW FRQVLGHU WKH IROORZLQJ

                                              
XQGLVSXWHG IDFWV 0HWFDOI H[SODLQHG WR D SROLFH RIILFHU WKDW KH KDG D VWDQGLQJ
DUUDQJHPHQWEHWZHHQKLPVHOIKLVEURWKHUDQG*DUGQHU0HWFDOIPDGHVWDWHPHQWVWR
WKHSROLFHWKDWKHZDVWKH³PLGGOHPDQ´ZKRVLPSO\UHFHLYHGSDFNDJHVZKLFKKHJDYH
WR *DUGQHU*DUGQHUUHVSRQGHGWR0HWFDOI¶VFDOODERXWWKHSDFNDJHE\GULYLQJWR
0HWFDOI¶VDSDUWPHQWDQGUHWULHYLQJWKHSDFNDJH*DUGQHUGLGQRWH[FKDQJHDQ\WKLQJ
IRU WKLV SDFNDJH ZKHQ KH UHWULHYHG LW 7KH ODFN RI SD\PHQW WHQGV WR VKRZ ERWK
*DUGQHU DQG 0HWFDOI XQGHUVWRRG WKH SDFNDJH WR EH *DUGQHU¶V SURSHUW\ )XUWKHU
*DUGQHUSRVVHVVHGWKHSDFNDJHZKHQKHZDVDUUHVWHGFORVHLQWLPHWRWKHLOOHJDO
VHL]XUHZLWKRXWDQ\LQWHUYHQLQJSXUFKDVHDEDQGRQPHQWRURWKHUDFWLQGLFDWLQJD
FKDQJHLQODZIXOSRVVHVVLRQRIWKHSDFNDJHSee Richards)GDW:KHQWKH
WRWDOLW\RIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVLVFRQVLGHUHGUDWKHUWKDQRQO\WKHQDPHDQGDGGUHVVRQ
WKH SDFNDJH ZH FRQFOXGH WKH IDFWV HVWDEOLVK *DUGQHU¶V SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH
SDFNDJHIRUSXUSRVHVRIDVVHUWLQJDYLRODWLRQRIKLVFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWV%HFDXVHWKH
LQLWLDOVHL]XUHRIWKHSDFNDJHZDVFRQFHGHGO\XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO*DUGQHULVHQWLWOHGWR
FODLPWKHSURWHFWLRQRIWKHH[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHWRWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUHDQGWKH
VHDUFKHVWKDWIORZHGIURPWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUH
                                            ,9
>ˆ@ :HFRQFOXGHWKHWRWDOLW\RIWKHHYLGHQFHEHIRUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWGHPRQVWUDWHV
WKDW*DUGQHUKDGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHDWWKHWLPHLWZDV
VHL]HGDWWKH836IDFLOLW\WRFODLPKLVSHUVRQDOFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHG
$FFRUGLQJO\DOOHYLGHQFHIORZLQJIURPWKHLOOHJDOVHL]XUHDQGVXEVHTXHQWVHDUFKPXVW
EHVXSSUHVVHG:HUHYHUVHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VRUGHUGHQ\LQJ*DUGQHU¶VPRWLRQWR
VXSSUHVVDQGUHPDQGWRDOORZ*DUGQHUWRZLWKGUDZKLVJXLOW\SOHD
>ˆ@ -HURG(7XIWH
      'DQLHO-&URWKHUV
      /LVD)DLU0F(YHUV
      -RQ--HQVHQ




                                            
,FRQFXULQWKHUHVXOW
*HUDOG:9DQGH:DOOH&-